Psychological contract breach effects and violation on employees

Psychological contract breach effects and violation on employees Abstract The goal of this study is to examine the influence of personality on the relationship between psychological contract breach and violation and its respective impact on employees work-related outcomes such as turnover intentions and counterproductive work behaviors. In this paper, personality was assessed on the basis of the Five-Factor model of personality (Goldberg, 1990) that is comprised of the following dimensions: Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Emotional Stability and Openness to Experience. Introduction In difficult times when companies must adapt to different changes in the global economic climate work behaviors are of great interest to organizations. In trying to retain the best employees, managers are interested in reducing turnover and preventing counterproductive behaviors. In order to understand employee responses and reactions to the work environment, contracts become vital as they create a behavioral guideline for both the employee and the organization. The psychological contract is a major element of any employee organization relationship, and consists of an employees beliefs concerning the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between that focal person and another party (Rousseau, 1989, p.123). Employees often feel that their organization has not fulfilled at least some of the promises it has made; and when they do their psychological contract is said to have been breached (Robinson and Rousseau, 1994). Numerous studies have analyzed the consequences of psychological contract breach on employees work-outcomes and generally conclude that there is a positive relationship between psychological contract breach and job dissatisfaction and turnover intentions (Zhao, Wayne, Glibkowski, Bravo, 2007; Bal, de Lange, Jansen and Van der Velde, 2008). Psychological contract violation has been defined as feelings of betrayal and deeper psychological distress à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ [whereby]à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the victim experiences anger, resentment, a sense of injustice and wrongful harm (Rousseau, 1989, p129). While psychological contract breach may not always lead to undesirable work-related attitudes, it is expected that employees who experience intensely negative feelings might take different measures against the organization they work for (Suazo et al., 2005). This is why in this paper we focus on the role of psychological contract violation as the mediator between psychological contract breach and employees work-related outcomes. But do all people have the same reactions to contract breach or could it be that there are individual differences in personality that lead some employees to react more strongly to psychological contract breach than others? Many authors have investigated the relationship between personality traits and job related outcomes (Judge, Heller and Mount, 2000; Tallman and Bruning, 2008), but there is little research on the relationship between personality and psychological contract breach and violation. Raja, Johns and Ntalianis (2004) is one of the few articles that report on the impact of personality on psychological contracts. These authors found that people high in neuroticism and low in conscientiousness are the ones that are more likely to perceive psychological contract breach. Moreover, the paper revealed that some personality traits moderated the relationship between psychological contract breach and violation. People high in neuroticism tended to perceive a stronger relationship between breach and violation than people high in locus of control. The main focus of this paper is to gain a better understanding of the psychological contract breach and violation relationship by analyzing whether this relationship is moderated by the Five-Factor model of personality (Goldberg, 1990).The study tries to fill in a gap in the existent psychological contract literature by examining the extent to which personality can explain changes in employees attitudes. Compared to other studies in the field, this study focuses on all five personality traits of the Five-Factor model of personality (Goldberg, 1990). This study is structured as follows: the next section describes the current state of the art with respect to psychological contract breach and violation; section three includes the research method and data collection; results will be discussed in section four and the main findings and implications for study and practice along with limitations and suggestions for future research in section five. Literature review and hypotheses The psychological contract As explained in the introduction, the term psychological contract is used to explain the relationship between an employee and an employer and the promises they have made to one another. Many researchers have explained the psychological contract in terms of social exchange theory. This theory (Blau, 1964; Robinson and Morrison, 1995) suggests that individuals enter relationships which consist not only of economic exchanges but also of more diffuse social obligations. These obligations change over time, but research has shown that individuals feel most comfortable when they are in a balanced exchange environment (Gouldner, 1960; Wayne, Shore and Liden, 1997), an environment where they feel that there is a fair equilibrium between what they offer the organization and what they receive in return. When the organization fails to fulfill its promises, employees might feel that there is inequality in the employment relationship (Lester, Turnley, Bloodgood and Bolino, 2003) and might as a result be inclined to take actions to rebalance their work situation, by for example reducing their contribution to the organization (Rousseau, 1995). Psychological contract breach and violation The psychological contract is a subjective perception, so the employee and the organization can possess radically different views of what are the obligations or promises that they have made to one another (Robinson and Rousseau, 1994). This is why often employees feel that their psychological contract has been breached and that the organization has failed in keeping its promises (Robinson and Rousseau, 1994). Although both the employee and the employer can feel that the contract has been breached by the other party, in this paper, as in many investigations on the psychological contract (cf. Zhao et al., 2007) the focus is on the perspective of the employee. In the early phases of research into the psychological contract there was not a very clear distinction between psychological contract breach and psychological contract violation and researchers used these terms interchangeably (Suazo, Turnley, Mai, 2005). In 1997, Robinson and Morrison made a clear distinction between the two. These authors defined psychological contract breach as a cognitive perception, while psychological contract violation was defined as the emotional or affective reaction that can sometimes arise from the perception of a breach of the psychological contract (Morrison and Robinson, 1997). Research has shown that not all breaches lead to emotional reactions on the part of employees (Morrison and Robinson, 1997; Turnley and Feldman, 1999a) because these emotional reactions can be influenced by different individual differences such as personality (Raja et al., 2004) or fairness perceptions (Morrison and Robbinson, 2000), but in those cases where emotional reaction do es occur the employee may have feelings of anger, injustice, resentment and distrust toward the organization that has not honored its promises (Raja, Johns and Ntalianis, 2004). Several studies have linked psychological contract breach to violation. Zhao, Wayne, Glibkowski, Bravo (2007) have summarized these studies and report a meta-analytic correlation of 0.52 (p In line with research findings and with social exchange theory, it is proposed here that psychological contract breach is positively related to psychological contract violation. Hypothesis 1: Psychological contract breach is positively related to psychological contract violation. Psychological contract breach and employees responses Previous studies have linked psychological contract breach to negative work outcomes (Robinson and Rousseau, 1994; Robinson and Morrison, 1995). When psychological contract breach occurs, employees start reducing their contribution to the organization as they feel that the organization has failed them (Robinson, 1996). Turnover intentions and counterproductive behaviors are employee possibilities of reducing their efforts and contributions towards the organization they work for. Zhao et al. (2007, p.651) define turnover intentions as the subjective probability that an individual will leave his or her organization within a certain period of time. The meta-analytic study shows that there is a positive correlation between psychological contract breach and turnover intentions (r=.42, p Hypothesis 2a: Psychological contract breach will be positively related to turnover intentions. Counterproductive behavior can be seen as destructive reactions toward an organization (Kickul, Neuman, Parker, Finkl, 2002). When employees feel that there psychological contract has been breached their level of commitment and trust in their organization decreases (Ball, Trevino, Sims, 1994) and they might react destructively toward the organization (Kickul et al., 2002). This reaction may be characterized by a set of different deliberate acts that harm the organization or even the organizations stakeholders such as clients, owners or supervisors (Spector and Fox, 2005). Counterproductive behavior is a very broad construct which contains behaviors ranging from theft or sabotage to violence against others (Gruys and Sackett, 2003). Each one of these actions create great problems to the organization and are also economic threats as organizations need to spend money to protect themselves against such actions (Bennett and Robinson, 2000). The employees counterproductive actions may even escalate until the level where they interfere with co-workers jobs or where they give a disrespectful treatment to their supervisors (KicKul et al., 2002). Bordia et al. (2008) found that the psychological contract breach was positively related to both minor offenses (ÃŽÂ ²=0.44,pË‚.001) and major offenses (ÃŽÂ ²=0.49, pË‚.001) of the employees at the work place. Following on their results, we propose that psychological contract breach will be positively related to the employees counterproductive behavior. Hypothesis 2b: Psychological contract breach will be positively related to counterproductive behavior. Psychological contract violation Prior to 1977, the terms psychological contract breach and psychological contract violation were used as synonyms, so much of the existent literature focused on the relationship between psychological contract breach and employees responses. Only after the paper of Robinson and Morrison (1997) the two became the separate concepts as we know them now. In this part of the paper we introduce psychological contract violation as a mediator of the relationship between psychological contract breach and employees reactions. As not all contract breaches results in feelings of violation and not all employees respond negatively to their psychological contract being breached (Morrison and Robinson, 1997; Rousseau 1995, Turnley et al., 2003) we believe that it would be interesting to test whether psychological contract violation could have a mediating effect on the psychological breach employees reactions relationship. One paper that focuses on the mediating role of psychological contract violation is the meta-analysis of Zhao et al. (2007). The authors use affective events theory to explain the relationship between psychological contract breach, affect (violation and mistrust), job attitudes and individual effectiveness. Following this theory, a negative event at the workplace causes negative emotional reactions, which in turn are taught to cause negative work attitudes (Bal et al., 2008). In their study, the authors find psychological contract breach to be a negative event leading to emotional reactions and job attitudes. The authors found that psychological contract violation fully mediated the relationship between psychological contract breach and job satisfaction, organizational commitment and intentions to quit. While psychological contract breach may not always lead to undesirable work-related attitudes, it is expected that employees who experience intensely negative feelings (psychological contract violation) will take some measures (such as leaving the organization or working less) against their organization (Suazo et al., 2005). Based on the affective events theory we expect that psychological contract violation will mediate the relationship between psychological contract breach and employee responses toward the organization they work for. Hypothesis 3a: Psychological contract violation will mediate the relationship between psychological contract breach and employees turnover intention. Hypothesis 3b: Psychological contract violation will mediate the relationship between psychological contract breach and employees counterproductive behavior. 2.5 The moderating role of personality Robinson and Morisson (2000) showed that attributions and fairness perceptions moderate the relationship between psychological contract breach and violation. The authors explain that when employees felt that they were treated unfair there was a stronger relationship between the breach of the psychological contract and an emotional reaction to it, so lower levels of fairness were predicting violation. Other papers suggested that organizational influences and also employees personal dispositions may be predictors of psychological contracts (Rousseau, 1995; 2001). But only little research has been conducted on the relationship between personality and psychological contract breach (Raja et al., 2004; Tallman and Bruning, 2008) even though there are a lot of papers that emphasize the importance of personality on work attitudes such as job performance or job satisfaction (Barrick and Mount, 19921; Judge and Bono, 2001). The focus of this study is to analyze whether personality might moderate the relationship between psychological contract breach and violation. We consider that personality could significantly influence this relationship because personality can explain how people differ in their social interactions, reaction to perceived injustice and attachment of importance to various extrinsic and intrinsic outcomes (Raja et al., 2004, p354). Zhao et al. (2007) also state that future research should focus on personality as a moderator when studying psychological contract breach and outcomes. The personality dimensions used in the paper are derived from the Five-Factor model of personality (Goldberg, 1990) and consists of 5 personality types: Extraversion, Neuroticism (Emotional Stability), Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Openness to Experience. We chose this model of personality because it has been used in a variety of studies (Barrick and Mount, 1991; Judge, Heller and Mount 2002, Raja et al. , 2004) and have been related to numerous work attitudes and behaviors (Costa and McCrae, 1992). Raja et al. (2004) article is one of the very few studies that established a connection between personality and psychological contract breach. These authors studied only the effect of Neuroticism, Extraversion and Conscientiousness, because they were unable to establish a reliable level of measurement for the Agreeableness dimension and considered Openness to Experience to be a too controversial structure. Still, in a more recent study of Tallman and Bruning (2008) the authors were able to measure all of these personality dimensions with the help of the NEO Five-Factor Inventory questionnaire, so we decided to also focus on all five personality aspects and their relation to the psychological contract breach and violation. The authors (Raja et al., 2004) found that employees personalities are related to their contract choice, as people high in neuroticism will tend to choose transactional contracts, while people high in conscientiousness or extraversion prefer relational ones. Transactional contracts are characterized by short-term economically focused attitudes and relational ones by a set of long-term attitudes that include features like loyalty or security (Raja et al., 2004). The authors also found that people who were more sensitive to equity issues (equity sensitivity dimension) were more likely to feel negative emotional reaction when there psychological contract was breached, than people who were more internal (external locus of control dimension). Tallman and Bruning (2008) extended the study of Raja et al. (2004) and the research on the relationship between psychological contracts and personality, by studying the link between employees personality and their beliefs regarding the employees obligations and organizational behavior. The authors linked personality to nine employee psychological contract obligation dimensions: commitment to the organization, commitment to the job, stewardship behaviors, showing initiative, serving the needs of the organization, support in the job, growth, support as a person and existence and their results showed that employees personality explained the variance for 4 out of 9 dimensions. Even more, they found that each of the Five-Model Personality dimensions was related to at least one of the dimensions, indicating that using all the 5 personality types was important for the study. As research has showed personality is an important factor in employees beliefs regarding their psychological contract; this is why we believe that personality might moderate the relationship between psychological contract breach and violation, influencing the extent to which employees perceive there psychological contract being violated and not only breach. The next part of this chapter will be divided according to the Five-Factor Model: Extraversion (1), Neuroticism (Emotional Stability) (2), Conscientiousness (3), Agreeableness (4) and Openness to Experience (5). Extraversion (1) Extroverts are highly sociable, talkative, energetic, ambitious and assertive (Costa, McCrae, 1992). The assertiveness of extroverts is associated with a desire for increased status and salary (Cattell, 1981). Extraversion is associated with high job performance, job satisfaction and team performance (Judge and Ilies, 2002; Judge and Bono, 2000; Kickul and Wiesner, 1997). Previous studies have shown that there is a positive relationship between extraversion on the one hand and job satisfaction (Judge et al., 2002) and organizational commitment (Erdheim et al., 2006) on the other. Even though extroverts are seeking for monetary rewards they tend to form long-term relationships, because in these ones they can develop themselves and have better opportunities to gain a better status and a better income (Tallman and Bruning, 2008). Tallman and Bruning (2008) found that there was a positive correlation between the extroversion personality dimensions and the perceived obligation extrovert people felt organization towards them in fulfilling their growth needs (ÃŽÂ ² = .25, p Extroverts are high performers and they are committed to their organization (Tallman and Bruning, 2008), in addition they are assertive, so they will tend to stand up for their rights. Breaching the psychological contract of extroverted people will probably lead to stronger negative emotional feelings toward the organization they work for than when comparing to introverted people. This is why it is proposed here that extroverts will be more likely to react emotionally to their psychological contract being breached than non-extroverts. Hypothesis 4b: Extraversion moderates the relationship between psychological contract breach and psychological contract violation, so that the relationship between psychological contract breach and psychological contract violation is stronger for extroverts than for introverts. Neuroticism (2) People high in neuroticism are anxious and lack trust in people, and it is said that they are more prone to perceive failures in life (Judge, Higgins, Thoresen, Barick, 1999). They have a greater tendency to pay attention to the negative side of a situation than other people who have a more balanced view of things (Ho, Weingart, Rousseau, 2003). They are usually poor team performers and they fear change (Kichuk and Wiesner, 1997). Previous research has shown a negative relationship between neuroticism and job satisfaction (Judge et al., 2002). Other authors have linked neuroticism to a preference for transactional psychological contracts (Raja et al., 2004) because these contracts do not require much initiative or confidence (Raja et al., 2004). Tallman and Bruning (2008) showed that neuroticism is positively related to the organizations obligations to provide support for the employees and to stewardship behavior. Because people high in neuroticism are more worried and anxious we believe that their reaction to a psychological contract breach would be stronger than that of people emotionally stable. This is why we propose that people high in neuroticism will have stronger emotional reaction and will tend to perceive their psychological contract as being violated. Hypothesis 4a: Neuroticism moderates the relationship between psychological contract breach and psychological contract violation, so that this relationship is stronger for people high in neuroticism than for those low in neuroticism. Conscientiousness (3) Conscientiousness is related to an individuals degree of self-control, need for achievement, order and also persistence (Costa, McRae Dye, 1991). Conscientious people tend to be more concerned with tasks accomplishment than with the task rewards (Stewart, 1996) and are interested in forming long-term employment exchange relationships (Zhao and Chen, 2008). Research has shown that there is a positive relationship between conscientiousness and work-related outcomes such as job satisfaction (Judge et al., 2002) or commitment (Erdheim, 2006). Orvis et al. (2008) tested the hypothesis that conscientiousness moderates the relationship between psychological contract breach and work outcomes. In their study, the authors showed that lower levels of conscientiousness led to a higher level of perceived psychological contract breach and lower levels of job satisfaction, organization loyalty and higher levels of intentions to quit. Raja et al. (2004) also found that there is a strong relation between conscientiousness and psychological contract breach: people with higher levels of conscientiousness perceived lower levels of psychological contract breach. Thus, it is expected here that it is unlikely that conscientious people will feel that their psychological contract has been violated upon perceiving a breach of their psychological contracts. Hypothesis 4c: Conscientiousness moderates the relationship between psychological contract breach and violation, so that the relationship between psychological contract breach and psychological contract violation is stronger for people low in conscientiousness than for those high in conscientiousness. Agreeableness (4) The agreeableness personality dimension refers to a persons preferences for interpersonal interactions that can range from compassion to antagonism (Costa McCrae, 1992). One of the few papers that investigated the relationship between agreeableness and psychological contract breach and work-related outcomes is the paper by Tallman and Bruning (2008). In their research, the authors show that there is a positive correlation between the agreeableness personality dimension and that perceived obligation agreeable people feel their organization has in supporting its employees (ÃŽÂ ²=.20, p Agreeable people value their interpersonal relationships and are characterized as being very interested in maintaining positive relations with the people that surround them (Ho, Weingart, Rousseau, 2003). The fact that agreeable people are more prone to maintaining long-term and pleasant relationship with others might have an effect on their perception of their psychological contract being breached. Because the psychological contract is an agreement made between two parties and involves an interpersonal element, agreeable people might be more tolerant and forgiving so it might make agreeable people feel fewer negative emotional reactions to breach than other personality types. Hypothesis 4b: Agreeableness moderates the relationship between psychological contract breach and violation, so that this relationship is stronger for people low in agreeableness than for those high in agreeableness. Openness to Experience (5) Openness to Experience represents open-minded individuals, who are imaginative, inventive, creative, curious and unconventional (Costa and McCrae, 1992). Open people have a high need for autonomy and tend to be creative and adaptive to change (Costa and Mcrae, 1992). Furthermore, open employees are less likely to feel that they must serve the organization or their managers and will look for organizations that will allow them enough freedom to try new ideas and approaches in their activities (Tallman and Bruning, 2008). Because open employees will look for interesting and challenging jobs, we would consider that they will also seek an organization that supports their decisions and that allows them to grow and satisfy their needs (Tallman and Bruning, 2008). This is why we expect that they might feel strong negative emotions when their freedom is limited or when they dont feel their organizations support. Hypothesis 4e: Openness to experience moderates the relationship between psychological contract breach and violation, so that this relationship is stronger for people high in openness than for those low in openness. Research model In the previous sections four sets of hypothesis were established. As shown in the figure, the principal relation in the paper is the one between psychological contract breach, violation and employees responses (turnover intentions, counterproductive behavior), while personality traits are hypothesized to moderate the relationship between breach and violation. Figure 1. Research model 3. Method 3.1 Sample The study was conducted in the Netherlands and used 3 data sources: full-time or part-time employees in the Netherlands, their supervisors and one of their friends. The questions related to psychological contract breach, psychological contract violation and turnover intentions were answered by the respondent, the questions regarding counterproductive behavior were answered by the respondents supervisor and personality was assessed by obtaining ratings from the respondents friend. We consider that the employee is the best source of information when considering psychological contract breach or violation as he is the only person who knows exactly what were his expectations and beliefs regarding his psychological contract. For the turnover intentions we use the employee as a respondent for similar reasons: he is the only one who can tell about his thoughts on leaving the company he works for. In what concerns the measurement of counterproductive behavior we expect that employees will be more reluctant to state the situations were they were acting accordingly, so we consider that their direct supervisor will give more objective responses. Supervisors ratings were previously used to assess counterproductive behaviors in Bordia et al. (2008) or anticitizenship behaviors in Kickul et al. (2001). We also ask one of the respondents friends to fill in the personality survey because employees might distort their personality scores (Rosse, Stecher, Miller and Levin, 1998) and answer the questions the way they think that they should be answered (Mahar, Cologne and Duck, 1995). The respondents were approached through a press release and invitation which were available to them through different websites like: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The total number of questionnaires spread among the employees was à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ from these, only a number à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ participants responded. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. In the beginning the employees were sent an email with the link for completing the survey and after 1 week they also received a reminder. The supervisors and friends were approached through the employee, who received a separate link to forward to its supervisor and friend so that they could participate at the survey. X% of employees were male, X% were female, Y% completed their university education, Y% their secondary education programThe average age of respondents was from à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, X% of them were working X hours a week, Y% of them were working Y hours a weekà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ X% of employees reported an organizational tenure of X%, Y% of employees reported an organizational tenure of Y yearsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Y% of the supervisors were male and Y% were female, Y% completed their university education, Y% their secondary education program The age of ranged from supervisors was from à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, X% of them were working X hours a week, Y% of them were working Y hours a weekà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The average organizational tenure of supervisors was T%. The frequency of contact between the supervisor and employee was for X% daily, for Y% weeklyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Z% of the friends were male, Z% were female. Their age range was from X to Y years, X completed their university education, Y% their secondary education program. 3.2 Measurement of variables Control variables The results of this study were controlled for the effects of: gender, age and organizational tenure. Gender was controlled for because employees might be evaluated differently according to gender (Turnley, Bolino, Lester and Bloodgood, 2003). Age was controlled for because age could affect work behavior or could also influence the kind of job people choose and finally, organizational tenure was necessary as a control variable because the length of employment might be related to the number of psychological contracts breaches an employee might experience (Turnley at al., 2003). Psychological contract breach The scale of Robinson and Morrison (2000) was used to assess psychological contract breach (Cronbachs ÃŽÂ ± = .92). The scale consisted of five items that assessed the employees perception of psychological contract breach. An example item is: I feel that my employer has come through in fulfilling the promises made to me when I was hired. Thr

Censorship on the Internet :: essays research papers fc

During the past decade, our society has become based solely on the ability to move large amounts of information across large distances quickly. Computerization has influenced everyone's life. The natural evolution of computers and this need for ultra-fast communications has caused a global network of interconnected computers to develop. This global net allows a person to send E-mail across the world in mere fractions of a second, and enables even the common person to access information world-wide. With advances such as software that allows users with a sound card to use the Internet as a carrier for long distance voice calls and video conferencing, this network is key to the future of the knowledge society. At present, this net is the epitome of the first amendment: free speech. It is a place where people can speak their mind without being reprimanded for what they say, or how they choose to say it. The key to the world-wide success of the Internet is its protection of free speech, not only in America, but in other countries where free speech is not protected by a constitution. To be found on the Internet is a huge collection of obscene graphics, Anarchists' cookbooks and countless other things that offend some people. With over 30 million Internet users in the U.S. alone (only 3 million of which surf the net from home), everything is bound to offend someone. The newest wave of laws floating through law making bodies around the world threatens to stifle this area of spontaneity. Recently, Congress has been considering passing laws that will make it a crime punishable by jail to send "vulgar" language over the net, and to export encryption software. No matter how small, any attempt at government intervention in the Internet will stifle the greatest communication innovation of this century. The government wants to maintain control over this new form of communication, and they are trying to use the protection of children as a smoke screen to pass laws that will allow them to regulate and censor the Internet, while banning techniques that could eliminate the need for regulation. Censorship of the Internet threatens to destroy its freelance atmosphere, while wide spread encryption could help prevent the need for government intervention. The current body of laws existing today in America does not apply well to the Internet. Is the Internet like a bookstore, where servers cannot be expected to review every title? Is it like a phone company who must ignore what it carries because of privacy? Is it like a broadcasting medium, where the government

Breast Cancer Essay -- Health Disease Essays Papers Prevention

Breast Cancer Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in the United States. There are many different types of cancer that are affecting people all over. Breast Cancer is one of these, and is found in man and women. Over 200,000 women and 1,300 men have been diagnosed with breast cancer this year. One in eight women will detect breast cancer in their lifetime. Men are less than one percent of the cases of breast cancer that are detected. Although prevention is not yet available, early detection is the best way to handle breast cancer, which can be treated in many ways. Breast cancer is a malignant tumor found in the glandular tissue of the breast. This tumor is called a carcinoma, which causes a single abnormal cell to multiple at rapid rates. A malignant tumor damages tissue and can spread. Cancer spreads when it breaks away and gets into the bloodstream. The tumor can be removed but there is still a possibility that they will grow back. When breast cancer spreads it is called metastatic breast cancer. If it is a benign tumor it is non cancerous, will not spread, but could damage some tissue. They are also not life- threatening and can be removed, which they rarely grow back. Breasts are glands that can produce milk. There are two main types of breast cancer, ductal carcinoma and lobular carcinoma. Ductal carcinoma is cancer in the lining of milk ducts of the breast. Lobular carcinoma is cancer in the lobules where breast milk is produced. There has not been a way detected to prevent breast cancer yet. The best way to protect you against breast cancer is by getting a mammogram at age 35 and once a year after age 40. Also you should perform a self-exam of the breast each month after age 20 f... ...nemia. There is a five-year survival rate for women with breast cancer. The percentage of survival has risen from 72 to 96. If the cancer has spread to other tissue then the rate goes down to 78. The hope of recovering from the diagnosis of breast cancer is extremely high. Women are becoming a lot more optimistic about being diagnosis with breast cancer. It is highly recommended that they see a physician regularly and give them themselves self-breast examinations. Breast cancer kills about 39, 800 women a year and about 400 men. Self-examination is one way to detect breast cancer early and give you a better chance of recovering from it. Many treatments are available and can help get rid of breast cancer. Even though there is no prevention for this cancer yet, detecting symptoms early and receiving treatment is the best way to get rid of breast cancer.

Terrorism: United Nations and Armored Car

Terrorism Gabriel Quinteros This essay, will discuss terrorism, this issue is one of the biggest issues facing the world today. This essay will talk about the effects this have around the countries it happen. What cause this, what it me or start the terrorism. In this essay will start discussion about the causes of Terrorism; it happens in the worker class were the leader or director, oppress them and make the workers revel against they that oppress them.The worker class will be passient to see if this change, but sometimes they keep oppressing them so they tired of their leader oppress them they revel and make a big group call it is call terrorism. This normally happens on undeveloped countries or no developed countries. In the developed counties there doesn’t happens this because there is no oppression so this never happens or start. Terrorism is affects nearly every undeveloped country in the world. We will discuss effects.One of the main effects is the killing of people th ey (the terrorist) always take prisoners because they know they can trade them for gold or , other thing they need or want, like to leave them alone, bring some transport (normally helicopters or an armored car so they can escape. Every time they don’t get what they want they start killing people. They just say like in 10 minutes if you don’t bring us what we want we will start killing people for every minute we want.So the police that is around normally gave them what they want the terrorist killing innocent people that was in the wrong place at the wrong moment. Also this makes a big effect in other countries around the country it happen. When a country has terrorism makes the country develops slowly because more presidents or important people are not thinking for improving the country just to solve the problem. The way for stopping terrorism or to try not to make people start it, is easy just don’t treat the employees like slaves.One of the ways of stopping t errorism is to try to give them what they need in terms of treatment. When the act of terrorism start the only way to stop it is to kill the terrorist because they will never want to give up, it’s a feeling that make them keep doing bad things. Conclusion: From my point of view, it is a bad issue but it can be stop or not started. It affects countries like Colombia, and it have come since all years. The terrorism happens in big scales and small scales. And is normally the same and created by the same reason.

Supervisory Model

I am motivated or guided y a very specific force regarding legal, ethical and even cultural concerns and we will explore that force and how it would play out in my everyday interactions of supervision. I am tremendously communal but realize that professionalism must play a part when I work with and serve under those in management and administration and I will talk about those aspects also. Today, social worker roles are tremendous and as a supervisor there is even more responsibility to the social workers who work under you.According to Shadbush (2002), â€Å"In addition to the efficient and effective administration of agency services, the education and support f social workers fashions the three-legged stool of modern social work supervision† (p. 2). L. Areas of Interest & Disinterest Supervision is not very appealing to me in relation to mental health and therapy due to the fact that most supervisors do not actually do much true therapy with clients like the clinicians that work under them. Actually doing therapy with the clients is the work that excites me.My early perception of a social worker was negative and brought to mind Miss Kebab, the nosy social worker who would visit Celandine Price. Celandine was a character in the movie by the same name, Celandine (1974), played by Dianne Carroll, a single African American woman living in Black Harlem with six children on welfare. Whenever Miss Kebab would come â€Å"calling†, she would be snooping to see if Celandine was working a Job, had a man, or was receiving gifts from someone. Celandine always had to lie to Miss Kebab because this information would cause Celandine's welfare to be cut considerably.The children were taught to hide anything that appeared to be extra to their poverty stricken lifestyle. Miss Kebab would be a nightmare for Edward Divine and the Charity Organization Society idea of a friendly visitor. II. Three Supervisory Roles In Administrative Supervision, Hackett (2014) explain s that in supervisory functions, being administrative deals directly with delivering a message, supporting a cause for staff or acting as a protective barrier regarding administrative issues between upper management and line staff.This is the first leg of our three-legged stool of supervisory functions. Depending on the subject matter and my passion for the topic. I would have to ensure diplomacy and tact in communicating a professional delivery of my message. The second leg is educational and thinking about giving instruction in a one on one fashion does not necessarily excite me. Hackett (2014) discussed education in a supervisory role as being concerned with â€Å"addressing ignorance barriers† to effective services (p. L).I have a passion for functioning in the role of educator – presenting subject matter in a broader fashion. Infusing and empowering staff members to provide effective services. The last leg of the three major components of supervision is supportive , which, according to Hackett (2014) is focused on â€Å"addressing emotional barriers† to effective services (p. 1). So line staff hat might be having a particular problem connecting with a client or experiencing stress because one of their families is dealing with particularly traumatic events, support from the supervisor is available from this role.This support can also be for the staff member himself or herself if they are experiencing difficulty in hearing portions of a client's harrowing story each week they come in. Support from the supervisor in this scenario could prevent a secondary trauma or something underlying that triggers the worker. There are many sources of stress for the social rocker and Hackett (2014) lists them in Supportive Supervision as the following: Performance & Compliance Demands Learning Demands Clients Organization Relationship with their Supervisor Vicarious Trauma (p. 3).Practicing self-care is something that social workers must apply regularly and l, as the supervisor, will need to ensure that my team gets the Abacas that Hackett (2014) refers to in Supportive Supervision as: awareness, balance and connection. My team will need these in place so that they can be emotionally healthy and continue to provide for our clients needs. Ill. My Style & Temperament I am a fun loving, outspoken person by nature and I am very orderly. I tend to be communal, and do not meet any strangers and I suppose that is because I spent twenty-two years in the Air Force.I spent time with people from many walks of life and cultures and had to grow up quite a bit through many circumstances that took place right in the different departments that I worked in. Shadbush (2002) states that humor can constrain and relieve stress caused on a Job by providing much needed space in stressful scenarios. I do appreciate humor as an icebreaker or to cause a tense atmosphere to dissipate. Even when things are not stressful I simply enjoy my ambiance better when humor and a certain display of cheerfulness.My current manager can be found laughing very often but sometimes it is inappropriate or appears unprofessional because she is very loud. I am concerned about how people view me in decision situations but realize that I cannot please all people. This creates a conundrum because as a supervisor it is given that not everyone will be happy with my decisions. So, coming short of appearing to be a dictator, I do realize that it is something I need to become more comfortable with and would need to evolve in knowing that I have made the best decision for the whole of my programs.In the lecture on Educational Supervision, Hackett (2014) discussed situational leadership and the fact that leaders determine a situation and espouse the best style for a particular posture. My temperament depends on my situation and for the most part I am pleasant and do my best to keep an atmosphere fairly light but professional. But if I sense that someone is mistrea ting my staff or desecrating our atmosphere with a negative mood because they are disgruntled, I can become someone very assertive.The lecture on Educational Supervision regarding situational leadership, Hackett (2014) determines that through â€Å"relationship behavior is the extent to which the leader engages in two-way or multiply communication. Includes listening to, facilitating, and supporting employees† (pig. 2). In these situations, my concern for my temperament is to preserve a very present disposition and be able to think through as things are being said. This allows me to cover all of the important points whether it is an employee or a client who has become upset because of something. ‘V.My Use of Motivation & Discipline Techniques By nature I love being a team player because I enjoy people so much and love to encourage others, cheering them on to their goals in life. In Strengthened, Rata (2007) describes the individual with the harmony theme as â€Å"One w ho looks for areas of agreement†. This theme suggests that this person believes that there is not much value in disharmony and I attempt to extinguish anything like this in conversation because of that. This describes me and I am not afraid of healthy conflict but I find any conflict outside of that to be counterproductive.In my supervision style regarding titivation I would look for the benefits of my staff being team oriented and do my best to teach them the value in having a harmonious atmosphere. My desire would be to encourage them to see the benefit of their contribution to what we do in our program. According to Administrative Supervision, (according to Hackett, 2014 lecture, p. 1 1) â€Å"most experts on motivation affirm that praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are more lasting motivators than money'. In Herrings Hygiene Motivation Theory, (according to Hackett, 2014 lecture, p. 0) she tastes that money already provides limited motivati on, and then when it is absent from the Hygiene Factors then denomination will automatically kick in. Along the theme of motivation, in the bible (n. D. ), God gave Noah the task of building the ark and taking his family and specified numbers of each animal with him as God commanded according to Genesis chapter six, verse thirteen through chapter seven, verse sixteen. According to the bible (n. D. ), in chapter seven, verse one God says, â€Å"Come into the ark, you and all your household, because I have seen that you are righteous before Me in this generation†.In verse seven of the same chapter it says, â€Å"So Noah, with his sons, his wife, and his sons' wives went into the ark†. Noah was a servant leader that God used to replenish the earth and he had to determine how to motivate his family and all of those animals to get onto that boat. In verse nine of chapter seven, according the bible (n. D. ), it says, â€Å"two by two they went into the ark to Noah, male and female, as God had commanded Noah. Pastor Diego Mesa (2014), taught the lesson All Aboard-The Life of Noah and stated, â€Å"Noah had to live a certain way before his family in order for them to follow him†.This is encouraging for me as a supervisor because as God has called me to walk in my destined position in life, as His servant leader, he will give me the grace and strength to carry out the tasks that I am supposed to do in my supervisory capacity. This is further confirmed according to Hackett (2014) in Models of Leadership, she discussed a servant leader setting a goal, visualizing it and taking the necessary steps to get to that goal. My disciplinary style and techniques have mirrored the military in years past but so often an airman or seaman is Just doing what their superior is yelling at them to do.I am glad that I learned another way before I had children because my desire now is to affect change in their hearts and not simply in their behavior. In the chapter on Principles & Problems in Implementing Educational Supervision Shadbush (2007) states, â€Å"however useful or significant the material is generally, the worker is not likely to be motivated unless one can show its usefulness and importance for a problem or situation that is meaningful to him or her† (p. 176). As an employee, I have not always been model in compliance to the rules or policies.Especially when I was younger and did not understand the value of obedience, which now I understand really is better than sacrifice! In the lecture, Progressive Discipline, Hackett (2014) asks the question, â€Å"What's behind the problem? † (p. 2). This is a good question and maybe there really is something valid going on behind the noncompliance employee problem and I have to be balanced enough in my thinking to not Jump to conclusions about it. Stress, conflict in casework demands, personal issues that are distracting work performance, etc.These are all potential issues that in the correct view could be legitimate. In Progressive Discipline, Hackett (2014) discussed â€Å"missing the root cause of a problem†. Common Disciplinary Error #5 says, â€Å"Not knowing the root cause makes it difficult to work with an employee to improve performance† (p. 9). Regardless of the reasons, a Performance Improvement Plan (PIP) could be utilized and a valuable employee can be saved. V. How I Manage Legal, Ethical & Cultural Issues Years ago I worked in an older adult clinic and had grown very fond of â€Å"Leticia†, my 70-year-old female Hispanic client of one year. Leticia† would bring me fruits and nuts from her son's orchard for most of the time I worked with her and I did not have he heart to tell her I should not accept gifts from her. But I would share them all with my co-workers to try to balance it out. â€Å"Leticia† really reminded me of my great Aunt Maggie who was in the beginning stages of dementia like â€Å"Leticia† and my relatives in Florida took care of her. In the later nineties, the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (AIRIER) was created and it stopped allowing most public services to illegal immigrants.I had toiled over Leticia case and she had come a long way in her care and she was comfortable in the senior housing that her son and I got her into. I was tempted to continue providing â€Å"Leticia† services â€Å"off the books† because I did not want to abandon providing services to Leticia. Shadbush (2002) states in the chapter on Problems and Innovation that â€Å"a pervasive, ubiquitous ethical problem is how to resolve the disjunction between what we are ethically obligated to do for the client and the reality of what we can do, a dilemma exacerbated by practice in a managed care and increasing litigious environment† (p. 70). Legally and ethically I knew that I was in a very precarious situation, so I sought the counsel of my supervisor and explained my dilemma. In order for me to avoid ethical prohibition against my supervisor and l, we agreed to offer Leticia a referral for an assisted living facility that could better serve her. Then I was assured that Leticia would be safe. She was able to see a social worker that came around to see all of the seniors who lived there and this helped her adjust to her new surroundings. The bible (n. D. Is clear in Romans chapter thirteen, verse one and it says, â€Å"Let every soul be subject to the governing authorities for there is no authority except from God and the authorities that exist are appointed by God†. In the first art of verse seven it also says, â€Å"render therefore to all their due†. So as my Overseer in heaven has determined what I do in situations of a legal and ethical manner, so goes my National Association of Social Workers (NASA) ethical principles speaking and they agree with Him regarding doing the right thing in any situation.Developing a relationship with Leticia was simple because I have always been around many people of different hues and races in the military and most of my grade school years. I can remember distinctly having a cultural celebration every year at my grade school in Los Angels County. Currently I support our department Cultural Committee and have key relationships with those on the African American sub committee and both of my brothers married white women, a cousin married a woman of Filipino decent, so all of this is my comfort level in any way and anywhere.NASA (2014) says, â€Å"These activities seek to promote sensitivity to and knowledge about oppression and cultural and ethnic diversity. Social workers strive to ensure access to needed information, services, and resources; equality of opportunity; and meaningful participation in decision making for all people†. So any interactions I have, as a supervisor regarding ultra awareness and being competent over this area would be simple for me. I may likely have to educate those that work under me and this subject would be discussed Just as any other policy that has zero tolerance but I would do it in a patient manner.VI. Working with Management & Administration Because I am a secretary to a manager often I am carrying messages from my manager to the supervisors and vice versa. I additionally take messages from clerical staff to my manager so I am accustomed to diplomacy at my level. I do have concern about communicating with upper management and must ensure polish and tact. VI'. Examples of My Experiences My current manager is a good example of what model you do not want to pattern yourself after. She is often found to be laughing very loudly; she is somewhat argumentative in meetings and is an awful example of timeliness.So often for her it is â€Å"do as I say and not as I do† and in spite of the fact that she is very intelligent, it is difficult to follow and respect her because of the flaws that she has th at cause her to lose credibility. It is not her having flaws but it is the sort of flaws that she has. I only worked for her for a few weeks before she lost it because I chose to use a particular ender after she said she told me not to use them. I did not remember this and received a written correction from her for it, stating that if I did it again there would be further consequences.She is immediately scary if you make her angry so I Just do my best to not do that. This paper has taken you through many examples of supervision from my paradigm and many others. You learned that one-on-one training is not for me and who the worst friendly visitor is. We relearned our Abacas – awareness, balance and connection, along with my temperament being determined by situation. I discussed what might be behind problems and the lesson that Leticia aught my supervisor and l. We additionally went up and down the ladder with management and administration and how I express myself if I do not t ake moments to gather myself.

Hw Answer Operation Management Heizer Ch 4

4. 9 [pic] (c)? MAD (two-month moving average) = . 075 MAD (three-month moving average) = . 088 |Table for Problem 4. (a, b, c) | | | | |Forecast | ||Error| | | | |Two-Month |Three-Month |Two-Month |Three-Month | | |Price per |Moving |Moving |Moving |Moving | |Month |Chip |Average |Average |Average |Average | |January |$1. 0 | | | | | |February |? 1. 67 | | | | | |March |? 1. 70 |1. 735 | |. 035 | | |April |? 1. 85 |1. 685 |1. 723 |. 165 |. 127 | |May |? 1. 90 |1. 775 |1. 740 |. 125 |. 160 | |June |? 1. 87 |1. 75 |1. 817 |. 005 |. 053 | |July |? 1. 80 |1. 885 |1. 873 |. 085 |. 073 | |August |? 1. 83 |1. 835 |1. 857 |. 005 |. 027 | |September |? 1. 70 |1. 815 |1. 833 |. 115 |. 133 | |October |? 1. 65 |1. 765 |1. 777 |. 115 |. 127 | |November |? 1. 70 |1. 675 |1. 27 |. 025 |. 027 | |December |? 1. 75 |1. 675 |1. 683 |. 075 |. 067 | | | | |Totals |. 750| |. 793| | | | | | | | | | | |4. 9 |(d)? Table for Problem 4. 9(d): | | | | |( = . 1 | | |( = . 3 | | |( = . | |Month |Price per Chip |Forecast ||Error| |Forecast ||Error| |Forecast ||Error| | |January |$1. 80 |$1. 80 |$. 00 |$1. 80 |$. 00 |$1. 80 |$. 00 | |February |1. 67 |1. 80 |. 13 |? 1. 80 | . 13 |? 1. 80 |. 13 | |March |1. 70 |1. 79 |. 09 |? 1. 76 | . 06 |? 1. 74 |. 04 | |April |1. 85 |1. 78 |. 07 |? 1. 74 | . 11 |? 1. 72 |. 13 | |May |1. 0 |1. 79 |. 11 |? 1. 77 | . 13 |? 1. 78 |. 12 | |June |1. 87 |1. 80 |. 07 |? 1. 81 | . 06 |? 1. 84 |. 03 | |July |1. 80 |1. 80 |. 00 |? 1. 83 | . 03 |? 1. 86 |. 06 | |August |1. 83 |1. 80 |. 03 |? 1. 82 | . 01 |? 1. 83 |. 00 | |September |1. 70 |1. 81 |. 11 |? 1. 82 | . 12 |? 1. 83 |. 13 | |October |1. 65 |1. 80 |. 5 |? 1. 79 | . 14 |? 1. 76 |. 11 | |November |1. 70 |1. 78 |. 08 |? 1. 75 | . 05 |? 1. 71 |. 01 | |December |1. 75 |1. 77 |. 02 |? 1. 73 | . 02 |? 1. 70 |. 05 | | | | | 4. 41? (a)? It appears from the following graph that the points do scatter around a straight line. [pic] (b)? Developing the regression relationship, we have: (Summer |Tourists |Ridership | | | | |months) |(Millions) |(1,000,000s) | | | | |Year |(X) |(Y) |X2 |Y2 |XY | |? 1 |? 7 |1. 5 |? 49 |? 2. 25 |10. 5 | |? 2 |? 2 |1. 0 | 4 |? 1. 00 |? 2. 0 | |? 3 |? 6 |1. 3 |? 36 |? 1. 69 |? 7. 8 | |? 4 |? 4 |1. 5 |? 16 |? 2. 25 |? 6. 0 | |? 5 |14 |2. 5 |196 |? 6. 25 |35. 0 | |? |15 |2. 7 |225 |? 7. 29 |40. 5 | |? 7 |16 |2. 4 |256 |? 5. 76 |38. 4 | |? 8 |12 |2. 0 |144 |? 4. 00 |24. 0 | |? 9 |14 |2. 7 |196 |? 7. 29 |37. 8 | |10 |20 |4. 4 |400 |19. 36 |88. 0 | |11 |15 |3. 4 |225 |11. 56 |51. 0 | |12 |? 7 |1. 7 |? 49 |? 2. 89 |11. 9 | and (X = 132, (Y = 27. 1, (XY = 352. 9, (X2 = 1796, (Y2 = 71. 59, [pic] = 11, [pic]= 2. 6. Then: [pic] andY = 0. 511 + 0. 159X (c)? Given a tourist population of 10,000,000, the model predicts a ridership of: Y = 0. 511 + 0. 159 ( 10 = 2. 101, or 2,101,000 persons. (d)? If there are no tourists at all, the model predicts a ridership of 0. 511, or 511,000 persons. One would not place much confidence in this forecast, however, because the number of tourists (ze ro) is outside the range of data used to develop the model. (e)? The standard error of the estimate is given by: (f)? The correlation coefficient and the coefficient of determination are given by: [pic] ———————– [pic][pic] Hw Answer Operation Management Heizer Ch 4 4. 9 [pic] (c)? MAD (two-month moving average) = . 075 MAD (three-month moving average) = . 088 |Table for Problem 4. (a, b, c) | | | | |Forecast | ||Error| | | | |Two-Month |Three-Month |Two-Month |Three-Month | | |Price per |Moving |Moving |Moving |Moving | |Month |Chip |Average |Average |Average |Average | |January |$1. 0 | | | | | |February |? 1. 67 | | | | | |March |? 1. 70 |1. 735 | |. 035 | | |April |? 1. 85 |1. 685 |1. 723 |. 165 |. 127 | |May |? 1. 90 |1. 775 |1. 740 |. 125 |. 160 | |June |? 1. 87 |1. 75 |1. 817 |. 005 |. 053 | |July |? 1. 80 |1. 885 |1. 873 |. 085 |. 073 | |August |? 1. 83 |1. 835 |1. 857 |. 005 |. 027 | |September |? 1. 70 |1. 815 |1. 833 |. 115 |. 133 | |October |? 1. 65 |1. 765 |1. 777 |. 115 |. 127 | |November |? 1. 70 |1. 675 |1. 27 |. 025 |. 027 | |December |? 1. 75 |1. 675 |1. 683 |. 075 |. 067 | | | | |Totals |. 750| |. 793| | | | | | | | | | | |4. 9 |(d)? Table for Problem 4. 9(d): | | | | |( = . 1 | | |( = . 3 | | |( = . | |Month |Price per Chip |Forecast ||Error| |Forecast ||Error| |Forecast ||Error| | |January |$1. 80 |$1. 80 |$. 00 |$1. 80 |$. 00 |$1. 80 |$. 00 | |February |1. 67 |1. 80 |. 13 |? 1. 80 | . 13 |? 1. 80 |. 13 | |March |1. 70 |1. 79 |. 09 |? 1. 76 | . 06 |? 1. 74 |. 04 | |April |1. 85 |1. 78 |. 07 |? 1. 74 | . 11 |? 1. 72 |. 13 | |May |1. 0 |1. 79 |. 11 |? 1. 77 | . 13 |? 1. 78 |. 12 | |June |1. 87 |1. 80 |. 07 |? 1. 81 | . 06 |? 1. 84 |. 03 | |July |1. 80 |1. 80 |. 00 |? 1. 83 | . 03 |? 1. 86 |. 06 | |August |1. 83 |1. 80 |. 03 |? 1. 82 | . 01 |? 1. 83 |. 00 | |September |1. 70 |1. 81 |. 11 |? 1. 82 | . 12 |? 1. 83 |. 13 | |October |1. 65 |1. 80 |. 5 |? 1. 79 | . 14 |? 1. 76 |. 11 | |November |1. 70 |1. 78 |. 08 |? 1. 75 | . 05 |? 1. 71 |. 01 | |December |1. 75 |1. 77 |. 02 |? 1. 73 | . 02 |? 1. 70 |. 05 | | | | | 4. 41? (a)? It appears from the following graph that the points do scatter around a straight line. [pic] (b)? Developing the regression relationship, we have: (Summer |Tourists |Ridership | | | | |months) |(Millions) |(1,000,000s) | | | | |Year |(X) |(Y) |X2 |Y2 |XY | |? 1 |? 7 |1. 5 |? 49 |? 2. 25 |10. 5 | |? 2 |? 2 |1. 0 | 4 |? 1. 00 |? 2. 0 | |? 3 |? 6 |1. 3 |? 36 |? 1. 69 |? 7. 8 | |? 4 |? 4 |1. 5 |? 16 |? 2. 25 |? 6. 0 | |? 5 |14 |2. 5 |196 |? 6. 25 |35. 0 | |? |15 |2. 7 |225 |? 7. 29 |40. 5 | |? 7 |16 |2. 4 |256 |? 5. 76 |38. 4 | |? 8 |12 |2. 0 |144 |? 4. 00 |24. 0 | |? 9 |14 |2. 7 |196 |? 7. 29 |37. 8 | |10 |20 |4. 4 |400 |19. 36 |88. 0 | |11 |15 |3. 4 |225 |11. 56 |51. 0 | |12 |? 7 |1. 7 |? 49 |? 2. 89 |11. 9 | and (X = 132, (Y = 27. 1, (XY = 352. 9, (X2 = 1796, (Y2 = 71. 59, [pic] = 11, [pic]= 2. 6. Then: [pic] andY = 0. 511 + 0. 159X (c)? Given a tourist population of 10,000,000, the model predicts a ridership of: Y = 0. 511 + 0. 159 ( 10 = 2. 101, or 2,101,000 persons. (d)? If there are no tourists at all, the model predicts a ridership of 0. 511, or 511,000 persons. One would not place much confidence in this forecast, however, because the number of tourists (ze ro) is outside the range of data used to develop the model. (e)? The standard error of the estimate is given by: (f)? The correlation coefficient and the coefficient of determination are given by: [pic] ———————– [pic][pic]

Word Order in a Noun Phrase and English Anaphors

WORD ORDER IN NP AND ENGLISH ANAPHORS Tereza Stifnerova The purpose of this essay is firstly to show the word order of a noun phrase (NP) and how the head noun of the NP can be post- and pre-modified, and secondly to focus on meaning of some examples of English anaphors and the distinctions between them and their Czech translations. The first part is going to aim on the internal structure of NPs. Complex nominal phrase consists of the pre-modifying elements, the head noun and the post-modifying elements.The so-called pre-modifiers can be divided into two groups: determiners and prenominals. We have to say that „determiners are obligatory and uniqueâ€Å" (Veselovska:86), and they have a specific place in the noun phrase – they are at the beginning. Among determiners we arrange also the possesives (my, your, etc. ). These two (determiners and possesives) are shown in (1). (1) a/the/my/mum’s mug Prenominals are the adjectives and secondary adjectives between the de terminers and the head noun.They are optional, which means they do not have to be in the NP, and they are recursive – it means they are not lined up in a very strict order, but there are some semantic features which affect the order. (2) a. the small old blue wooden box b. ? the wooden blue old small box c. small the old blue wooden box Post-modifiers, or postnominals, can also have a fixed or a relatively free order. Among elements of these category belong multiple prepositional phrases (3-4), verbs with infinitive or in the –ing form (5-6), clauses (relative clause) (7), complex adjectival phrases (8) and of-phrases (9). 3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) the gift for Jane from Peter ? the gift from Peter to Jane a girl to watch the lector teaching history the gift which you gave me a girl [AP more beautiful than me ] the student of philology Except the last one, the others can be lined up after the head noun in a relatively free order. (10) a book of fairytales tied with a blue ribbon for my daughter As I said, the of-phrase has a fixed place in a word order of a NP – it has to follow the head noun immediately because it is adjacent to the noun. 11) a. an office of the teacher with the white door b. * an office with the white door of the teacher In the second part I am going to translate some examples of English anaphors into Czech and then discuss the meanings of them and I will also try to show the distinctions between English and Czech forms. Here are the examples in English: (a1) Theyi killed themk. (b1) Theyi killed themselvesi. (c1) Theyi killed each otheri. And the translation into Czech: (a2) Oni je zabili. (b2) Oni se zabili. (c2) Oni se zabili (navzajem).The example (a1) has the index i with the pronoun they and the index k with the accusative case of the pronoun they, which means that the pronoun they have a meaning of „peopleâ€Å", which are NOT the people included in the meaning of them, i. e. them has the so-called disjoin ed refference. The following examples (12), (13) and (14) show that in English the nominative and accusative cases of the pronoun they are used to mark different (groups of) people. (12) (13) (14) The thievesi killed themk. The thievesi killed the thievesk. *The thievesi killed the thievesi. the thieves ? them > they are not the same thieves so they cannot have the same index The example (b1) has the index i in both cases – it means that they and themselves includes the same people. Because themselves is a reflexive pronoun, we know that the group of people indicated in they is the same group of people as in themselves. In the example (c1) is shown the same as in the example (b1), although in this case the second pronoun is reciprocal so we know that the group of people included in they consists – in this case – of two people.It means that the first one killed the second one and conversely the second one killed the first one. It means that the reciprocals  ¾require the antecedent to be plural (the action or relation takes place between the members of the set, reciprocally). â€Å" (Veselovska:104) These anaphors in (b1) and (c1) are also called syntactic anaphors. „Syntactic anaphors have a hierarchically higher antecedent, which means they must be bound in the same clause, usually in the position of Subject or Agentâ€Å" (Veselovska:104) as in (15) and (16). (15) (16) We saw ourselves in the mirror. To educate oneself is a choice of every person. urselves > Subject oneself > Agent (of educating) In Czech it is different. The first example (a2) is very simple – the pronouns clearly state who killed whom. Oni killed je, which means one group of people killed the other one. The examples (b2) and (c2) are in Czech similar in form but different in meaning. Nevertheless, in the second case we can optionally add the word navzajem, so it would be more clear who killed whom but basically, the reflexive pronoun se is universal in Czech. BIBLIOGRAPHY Veselovska, Ludmila. A Course In English Morpho-Syntax. UP Olomouc, 2009